COTEFL: Minimizing Problems ...(Jufrizal)

Minimizing Problems Faced by Indonesian Students in Learning and Understanding Tense and Aspect of English[1]

Dr. Jufrizal, M.Hum.

English Department of FBSS State University of Padang

Abstrak

Kajian tatabahasa lintasbahasa menyimpulkan bahwa bahasa Inggris adalah bahasa berkala sedangkan bahasa Indonesia termasuk bahasa tak-berkala. Dalam hal ini, bahasa Inggris menggramatikalisasikan kala dan aspek secara morfosintaksis, sementara bahasa Indonesia dan kebanyakan bahasa daerah di Indonesia hanya mengungkapkan kala dan aspek tersebut secara morfologis dan melalui butir-butir leksikal. Perbedaan sistem kala dan aspek antara bahasa Inggris dan bahasa Indonesia tersebut sering menimbulkan masalah pembelajaran bahasa Inggris secara psikologis dan akademis. Makalah ini membahasa bagaimana mengurangi masalah yang dihadapi pembelajar (mahasiswa) Indonesia dalam belajar dan memahami kala dan aspek bahasa Inggris dengan membangun kesadaran dan memperkuat kesadaran dan pengetahuan mereka akan hakikat tatabahasa bahasa Inggris melalui tiga upaya yang bersifat psikologis dan akademis.

Kata/frasa kunci: masalah pembelajaran, tatabahasa, kala, aspek, kesadaran tatabahasa, pengetahuan tatabahasa

A. Introduction

As a science, linguistics studies the systems and regulations existing in human languages. Grammar is a well-known term in linguistics which usually refers to the description of a language system and the rules which govern the existence of the language. According to Lyons (1987: 133), the term grammar originally goes back to a Greek word which may be translated as ‘the art of writing’. But quite early in the history of Greek scholarship, this word acquired a much wider sense and come to embrace the whole study of a language. More recently, the term grammar has developed a narrower interpretation. As used nowadays, it tends to be restricted to that part of the analysis of language which was handled in classical grammar under the headings of inflection and syntax. A broader sense of grammar refers to the system and rules governing the language at the phonological, morphological, syntactical, and semantic levels.

In general, linguistic theories as well as grammatical concepts have been giving fundamental contributions to language teaching-learning theories and practices. It is necessary to know that teaching directly implies learning with a further implication that language teaching can be defined as the activities which are intended to bring about language learning (see Stern, 1994: 21). Linguistic and grammatical theories and features should be accommodated in order to have successful language teaching and learning. On this argument, Stern (1994: 166) states that the idea that language teaching theory implies a theory of language and that linguistics had a direct contribution to make to language pedagogy become more and more accepted. Although the ideas were severely criticized, the main impact of linguistic theory can be seen in: (i) language description as an essential basis of the language curriculum and campus selection; (ii) emphasis on linguistic forms reflected in divisions into phonological and grammatical exercises and gradation of linguistic items; (iii) contrastive analysis as a principle of curriculum development; (iv) primacy of speech; and (v) linguistic patterns as units of instruction and of testing.

The fact that human languages have different grammatical systems and features has been reported and agreed by linguists. Cross-linguistic studies on language grammar conclude that common grammatical features shared by almost all languages may bring about the idea of universal grammar, but of course, the differences are naturally found in the universals. Grammatical features such as tense and aspect are crosslinguistically various. Related to tense, for example, grammarians have got conclusion that human languages can be classified into tenseness and tenseless languages. In a tenseness language, tense and aspect are grammaticalized in clause construction, while in a tenseless language, the tense and aspect are lexically and morphologically constructed. In this sense, English is categorized as a tenseness language and, in contrast, bahasa Indonesia and most local languages in Indonesia are said to be tenseless languages. The different grammatical systems may cause teaching-learning problems, particularly on the second language (L2) and foreign language (FL). Problems faced by the students in learning and understanding tense and aspect of English as a foreign language in Indonesia have been becoming the fact and real condition reported by researchers and foreign language teachers at all levels of educational institution. The problems are natural since Indonesian students have had their mother tongue (L1) before they study an FL (English) which posses different grammatical system. However, the needs for mastering and communicating in English require us to minimize (and if it is possible to overcome) the teaching-learning problem of English tense and aspect. Lack of learning motivation and understanding on the English tense and aspect cause seriously bad effects toward the mastery of English and the ability to communicate in the FL. Using English without optimal attention to tense and aspect is meaningless, except in the forms of contact language only.

This paper tries to discuss ways to minimize possible problems faced by Indonesian students in learning and understanding tense and aspect of English based on a research conducted at the English Department of FBSS, State University of Padang in 2008/2009. Even though the data, information, and discussion presented in this paper are mostly concerning with the teaching-learning process of English at university level, English teachers and learners at high school may accommodate its main conclusion to be appropriately applied in the fields.

B. Related Theories in Brief

1. Grammar and Language Teaching

Many definitions of language teaching have been proposed by experts based on various points of views philosophical bases. The concepts of teaching and learning have been much influenced by philosophical and pedagogical matters. According to Stern (1994: 210), language teaching can be defined as the activities which are intended to bring about language learning. This definition implies that a theory of language teaching has direct relationship with the concepts of language learning. Related to this, t is also possible to use the terms: “teaching and learning”, “teaching”, or “learning” to mean teaching-learning process of language. Stern (1994: 174) adds that linguistics and language teaching cannot be separated in both theories and practices. Quoting Spolski, Stern describes that the relations between linguistics and language teaching as dual: ‘applications and implications’. The description of language made by linguists can be ‘applied’ in the sense that they provide the data needed for writing about teaching grammars, course books, and dictionaries. The discussion that linguistics has initiated about the nature of language may provide new insights which in turn have implications for the teaching of languages.

Grammar is one of the most important contribution of linguistic studies which can be theoretically and practically used in language teaching. Crystal as quoted by Chalker in Bygate et.al. (eds.) (1994: 33) lists six types of grammar as one main result of linguistic studies. They are descriptive, pedagogical, prescriptive, reference, theoretical, and traditional grammars. However, Chalker states that only three of Crystal’s types of grammar seem to apply to actual books, namely: (i) reference grammars, the types of a comprehensive grammar, (ii) prescriptive grammars, the usage books for native speakers; and (iii) pedagogical grammars, books specifically designed for teaching a foreign language (See Bygates et.al. (eds.), 1994: 33 – 34). Related to this, the pedagogical grammars are the type of grammar book which is appropriate to use in the teaching of English as a foreign language in Indonesia.

The need for grammar teaching in language teaching is not only for the first language (L1) and the second language (L2), but also for foreign language (FL) teaching .Grammar can be seen as descriptive – the stuff of reference grammars and linguistics theory – or pedagogical – the stuff of lessons and text books (Tonkyn in Bygate et. Al. (eds.) (1994: 1). According to Brown (2001: 65), one component of principles of language teaching centers on language itself and on how learners deal with complex linguistic systems. One thing that language teacher has to bring into the classroom is grammar; the system and regulations in the language learnt. It is true to say that the existence of grammar in human language makes the language learnable and teachable academically and formally.

2. Tense and Aspect: Some Basic Concepts

Tense and aspect are the main grammatical features which make a language may have capability to express particular meaning by means of certain constructions. Cruse (2000:274) states that semantically the grammatical feature of tense serves essentially to locate the event referred to in the sentence with reference to the time at which utterance was produced. Only languages which encode timing distinctions by means of grammatical elements can be properly said to manifest the grammatical feature of tense. Many languages encode the timing of a designated event lexically, by means of expression equivalent to yesterday, last year, next week, etc. Typologically, languages which belong to the first group are called as tenseness languages, whereas those of the second group are the tenseless languages. English is one example of tenseness languages, and bahasa Indonesia is a tenseless language. There are three basic primary tenses; (i) past (event occurs before time of speaking); (ii) present (event occurs concurrently with speaking time, or include it); and (iii) future (event is projected to occur after the time of speaking (see also Matthews, 1997; Saeed, 1997).

Cruse (2000:275) adds that it is important to clearly distinguish aspect from tense. Tense serves to locate an event in time; aspect says nothing about when an event occurred (except by implication), but either encode a particular way of conceptualizing an event, or conveys information about the way the event unrolls through time. It is also important to make a distinction between aspect as a semantic phenomenon, and aspect markers in a particular language, which may have a variety of semantic functions. To make things even more complicated, a lexical verb may encode aspectual information as part of lexical meaning. In this sense, the terms perfect and progressive (continuous) are basically the aspect (see also Saeed, 1997).

According to Lyons (1990:678 – 679), tense, semantically, is a category of the sentence. In a tenseness language, the participants in the language – event must be able to control and interrelate at least two different frames of temporal reference; the deictic and the non-deictic. Tense, in this language, is part of the deictic frame of temporal reference; it grammaticalizes the relationship which holds between the time of the situation that is being described and the temporal zero-point of the deictic context. Not all languages have tense; when it is said that Chinese and Malay do not have tense, what is usually meant is that these languages do not obligatorily relate the time of the situation being described to the time of utterance by any systematic variation in the structure of the sentence (see also Frawley, 1992:339 – 340).

3. Teaching English Grammar at University

Teaching English as a foreign language (FL) in Indonesia a university level belongs to teaching an FL for adult. Ideally, learners of English at university are not beginners anymore because they have been studying the FL for at least six years. Experts in language teaching are in various opinions about the critical and better ages for learning an L2 or an FL. Stern (1994:366 – 367) says that language learning may occur at different maturity levels from the early years into adult life. No age or stage stands out as optional or critical for all aspects of second language learning. For decisions on the best age for language learning a strictly developmental balance sheet, based on psychological studies, cannot be the only consideration. A language can be taught from any age upwards.

According to Brown (2001:90 – 91), adults have superior cognitive abilities that can render them more successfully in certain classroom endeavors. Their need for sensory input can rely a little more on their imaginations. Their level of shyness can be equal to or greater than that of children, but adults usually have acquired a self-confidence not found in children. Because of adults’ cognitive abilities, they can at least occasionally deal with language that isn’t embedded in a “here and now” context. Brown (2001) also states some points related to teaching-learning an L2 or an FL for adults as the followings:

(1) Adults are more able to handle abstract rules and concepts;

(2) Adults have longer attention spans for material that may not be intrinsically interesting to them;

(3) Sensory input needs not always be quiet as varied with adults, but one of the secrets of lively adults classes is their appeal to multiple senses;

(4) Adults often bring a modicum of general self-confidence (global self-esteem) into a classroom;

(5) Adults, with their more developed abstract thinking ability, are better able to understand context-reduced segment of language;

Related to the teaching an L2 and/or an FL to adults, English Department of FBSS State University of Padang constructs the curriculum and develops teaching program on English grammar under the subject names: Structure I, II, III, and IV (Buku Pedoman Akademik Universitas Negeri Padang, 2008/2009). Based on the synopsis and syllabus developed, the grammatical features tense and aspect of English become the main topics of discussion in the teaching-learning process. These two grammatical features are taught and discussed more in the sense of pedagogical grammar rather than as descriptive-theoretical grammar. So that, the explanations and exercises given are more on practical-communicative things in order to support the four language skills. In the teaching-learning process the grammatical term aspect is not well-known; it is just included in the term tense.

C. Data Description and Discussion

The data presented in this paper are partially derived from the data collected through a descriptive research conducted in 2008/2009 at the English Department of FBSS, State University of Padang. The materials of English grammar are taught and delivered in the serial subject; Structure I, II, III, and IV, beside they are also given theoretically in linguistics subjects. The main aim of teaching the Structure subjects is to give knowledge and experiences on sentential patterns and constructions of English in order to support the language skills by means of delivering and presenting pedagogical explanation and exercises. For practical purposes and immediate communicative need, the aim is fairly alright. However, in order to establish and develop learners’ grammatical-linguistic competence, and to strengthen their awareness and knowledge on the nature of English grammar, the practical-communicative aims are not enough. As the adult learners, university students need further theoretical-conceptual inputs, explanations, and exercises on grammatical features, as well. Those are needed for adult and advanced learners unless they don’t have sufficient awareness and academic knowledge on the grammar of the learnt language.

A part of research results showed that most students (90%) do not know the differences and interrelationship between tense and aspect in English, and 70% of the students got difficulties and faced problems in understanding and using the grammatical features appropriately. They just knew the term tense and they did not know for sure that as a matter of fact they had talked about aspect or not. The teacher had only introduced the term tense (but not aspect) to mean both. Pedagogically and practically, this condition is not a serious problem. However, it is problematic for further needs of adult learners at advanced level; at this level, establishing and strengthening awareness on nature of grammar and linguistic competence are highly required. These are the bases for improving learning achievement on grammar, then. The case that the system of English grammar is quite different typologically from that of bahasa Indonesia (learners’ L1) makes the grammatical-theoretical explanations and exercises on tense and aspect becomes necessary. If the phenomena of tense and aspect do not have enough attention in grammar teaching, then the learners will not have sufficient awareness and enough knowledge on the grammatical features. Lack of awareness and knowledge on grammar of language learnt mostly cause serious problem in the language mastery.

Based on the results of grammar test and questionnaires administrated, 80% of students were in problem to understand and to use future continuous, future perfect continuous, past perfect continuous, and past perfect future continuous tenses. The data also showed that more students (60% - 70%) got difficulties in understanding and using past future continuous and past perfect tenses grammatically. In other side, the learners were not in serious problems and difficulties in simple past, simple present, simple future, present perfect, and present continuous tenses. These data told that most Indonesian students are not in serious problems and difficulties in learning and understanding simple tenses and aspects, but they faced difficulties in learning, understanding, and using complex tenses and aspects.

In accordance with the facts, it is argued that university students (adult and advanced learners) need to have psychological awareness and academic knowledge on the nature of English grammar. Grammar teachers have to provide the students with enough theoretical explanation and exercises about the nature of tense and aspect in English. No serious problem faced by Indonesian learners in learning and understanding simple tenses might be caused by there are some similarities of those tenses with the lexical units found in bahasa Indonesia. Whereas, the difficulties faced by the learners in the complex tenses are supposed to be caused by the case that there is no “direct” translations or similar grammatical unit and lexical items in bahasa Indonesia which are equal to the senses of the complex tenses.

So what should we do to minimize (and if it is possible to leave out) the problems faced by Indonesian students in learning and understanding tense and aspect of English? Yes, one good answer is that to establish and to strengthen students’ awareness and knowledge (linguistic competence) on the nature of English grammar. How could we do? The first thing to do is reformulating the academic purposes of teaching-learning English grammar. The main purpose of teaching grammar should be reformulated to give further emphasis on theoretical-conceptual features of grammatical items, particularly on tense and aspect. For university level, the main aim of teaching English grammar may be stated as to introduce, to give knowledge, and to know the nature of English grammar theoretically and practically to support the learners’ language skills. This reformulation will enable teachers and students to be in having learning materials of main features of English grammar theoretically and practically.

Secondly, the way is related to teaching-learning process in classroom; teachers should explain the concepts and give appropriate exercises concerning with the difference and interrelationship between tense and aspect. This way may have psychological and academic effects to the learners related to the nature of tense and aspect in English. Those effects may establish and strengthen the students’ awareness and academic inputs about tense and aspect conceptually and practically. As the continuation, the third way is to provide the students with appropriate learning materials and reference books. In this idea, preparing authentic materials compiled from any sources are highly recommended. In addition, using reference books which contain descriptive-communicative explanations and exercises of tense and aspect, as well as the use of pedagogical-communicative grammar books in classroom activities are academically helpful.

Lastly, appropriate comparative description and explanation about the similarities and differences between the typology of English grammar and that of learners’ L1 (say bahasa Indonesia) are pedagogically useful. This idea is based on the typological studies of human languages cross-linguistically which state that languages overall the world have various and specific grammatical systems, beside having universal features. Since English and bahasa Indonesia (learners’ L1) come from different typology of grammatical systems and different language family, as well, so the comparative and contrastive explanations on particular grammatical features of the two different languages are psychologically and academically valuable.

D. Concluding Remarks

Different typological and grammatical systems existing between English and bahasa Indonesia (and students’ L1) psychologically and linguistically bring about problems and difficulties in learning and understanding tense and aspect for most Indonesian students. In order to minimize the problems, it is necessary to establish and to strengthen the students’ awareness and knowledge on the similarities and differences between English grammatical features and those of bahasa Indonesia. The ways proposed in this paper are basically supposed to be useful for adults and advanced learners in learning English. However, the ideas and practical uses derived from this paper may also be applicable for high school levels. They are possibly workable by having appropriate modification and other relevant improvisation for the intermediate level of teaching-learning English as an FL.

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